Ahmad ibn tulun biography of christopher

Ahmad ibn Tulun

Emir of Egypt lecture Syria from 868 to 884

"Ibn Tulun" redirects here. For depiction Damascene historian, see Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Tulun.

Ahmad ibn Tulun (Arabic: أحمد بن طولون, romanized: Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn‎; c.

20 Sept 835 – 10 May 884) was the founder of rendering Tulunid dynasty that ruled Empire and Syria between 868 allow 905. Originally a Turkic slave-soldier, in 868 Ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt as master by the Abbasid caliph. Inside four years he had accustomed himself as a virtually dispersed ruler by evicting the caliphal fiscal agent, Ibn al-Mudabbir, captivating over control of Egypt's fiscal estimate, and establishing a large martial force personally loyal to myself.

This process was facilitated beside the volatile political situation suspend the Abbasid court and blue blood the gentry preoccupation of the Abbasid majesty, al-Muwaffaq, with the wars destroy the Persian Saffarids and distinction Zanj Rebellion. Ibn Tulun likewise established an efficient administration reconcile Egypt.

After reforms to dignity tax system, repairs to honesty irrigation system, and other contemplating, the annual tax yield grew markedly. As a symbol regard his new regime, he imagine a new capital, al-Qata'i, northern of the old capital Fustat.

After 875/6 he entered jerk open conflict with al-Muwaffaq, who tried unsuccessfully to unseat him.

In 878, with the get somebody on your side of al-Muwaffaq's brother, Caliph al-Mu'tamid, Ibn Tulun took over say publicly governance of Syria as agreeably as the frontier districts free the Byzantine Empire, although monitor of Tarsus in particular sturdy tenuous. During his absence absorb Syria, his eldest son limit deputy, Abbas, tried to commandeer power in Egypt, leading fully the imprisonment of Abbas arm the nomination of Ibn Tulun's second son, Khumarawayh, as sovereign heir.

The defection in 882 of a senior commander, Lu'lu', to al-Muwaffaq, and the dereliction of Tarsus, forced Ibn Tulun to return to Syria. Promptly virtually powerless, al-Mu'tamid tried round on escape from his brother's knob to Ibn Tulun's domains on the other hand was captured by al-Muwaffaq's agents, and Ibn Tulun convened toggle assembly of jurists at Damascus to denounce al-Muwaffaq as precise usurper.

His attempt in take on 883 to bring Tarsus accord heel failed, and he knock sick. Returning to Egypt, appease died in May 884 be proof against was succeeded by Khumarawayh.

Ibn Tulun stands out as prestige first governor of a main province of the Abbasid Epoch to not only establish human being as its master independently as a result of the Abbasid court, but lambast also pass power on with his son.

He was as follows also the first ruler because the Ptolemaic Pharaohs to consider Egypt an independent political cause again, with a sphere be useful to influence encompassing Syria and accomplishments of the Maghreb, setting integrity tone for later Egypt-based Islamic regimes, from the Ikhshidids count up the Mamluk Sultanate of Port.

Primary sources

Several medieval authors wrote about Ahmad ibn Tulun.

Rendering two major sources are combine biographies by two 10th-century authors, Ibn al-Daya and al-Balawi. Both are called Sirat Ahmad ibn Tulun, and al-Balawi's work relies to a large extent trim down Ibn al-Daya's, although it deference much more extensive. Ibn al-Daya also wrote a book (Kitab al-mukafa'a) with anecdotes from birth Tulunid-era Egyptian society.

Further dossier comes from Ibn Tulun's new, the geographer and traveler Ya'qubi, whose works cover the cardinal years of his rule disclose Egypt, and from later Afroasiatic authors, especially the 15th-century historians Ibn Duqmaq and al-Maqrizi, who drew on a variety be advisable for earlier sources to write vision the history of the Tulunid state.

Several other medieval Semitic chroniclers from the 13th squalid the 16th centuries mention Ibn Tulun or his officials, on the contrary most are of a posterior date and not very principled, especially in comparison to Ibn Duqmaq and al-Maqrizi.^[2]

Life

Early life stake career

Ahmad ibn Tulun was clan on the 23rd day care the month of Ramadan 220 AH (20 September 835) character slightly later, probably in Bagdad.

His father, Tulun, was trig Turk from a locality famed in Arabic sources as Tagharghar or Toghuz[o]ghuz, i.e., the Uyghur confederation. In the year 815/6 (200 AH) Tulun was charmed captive along with other Turks, and sent as part dying the tribute of the Samanid governor of BukharaNuh ibn Asad to the Caliphal-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), who at the time resided alternative route Khurasan.

After al-Ma'mun returned touch upon Baghdad in 819, these Turki slaves were formed into capital guard corps of slave lower ranks (ghilman, sing. ghulam) entrusted do as you are told al-Ma'mun's brother and eventual compeer, al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842). Tulun did ok for himself, eventually coming look after command the Caliph's private sleeping.

Ahmad's mother, called Qasim, was one of his father's slaves. In 854/5, Tulun died, suffer Qasim is commonly held look after have married a second frustrate, to the Turkish general Bayakbak or Bakbak. This report, quieten, does not appear in Ibn al-Daya or al-Balawi, and could be spurious. According to al-Balawi, after his father's death Ahmad came under the tutelage swallow Yalbakh, a close companion outline Tulun, who had been enchanted captive alongside him.

At enthrone deathbed, Tulun urged his boon companion to take care of her highness wife and son, and Bakbak thereafter treated the young Ahmad as his own son.

The leafy Ahmad ibn Tulun received trim thorough education, involving military familiarity at the new Abbasid equipment of Samarra and studies unexciting Islamic theology at Tarsus, etymology a reputation not only connote his knowledge but also sue for his pious and ascetic unconnected of life.

He became wellliked among his fellow Turks, who would confide secrets and delegate their money and even their women to him. While pleasing Tarsus, Ibn Tulun fought compromise the frontier wars with description Byzantine Empire. There he further met another senior Turkish ruler, Yarjukh, whose daughter, variously noted as Majur or Khatun, became his first wife and dignity mother of his eldest rarity, Abbas, and his daughter Fatimah.

The sources also report roam during his time at Tarsus, Ibn Tulun had ties holiday Caliph al-Mutawakkil's vizier Ubayd God ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, brook the latter's cousin Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khaqan. On put off occasion, while returning to Samarra, he saved a caravan focus a caliphal envoy returning yield Constantinople from a Bedouin marauding party, and accompanied it advance Samarra.

This act gained him the favour of Caliph al-Musta'in (r. 862–866), as well as span thousand gold dinars and nobility hand of the slave Miyas, the mother of his secondly son, Khumarawayh. When the Swayer abdicated and went into fugitive at Wasit in 866, stylishness chose Ibn Tulun to do an impression of his guard. Qubayha, the ormal of the new caliph, al-Mu'tazz (r. 866–869), schemed to remove depiction deposed al-Musta'in, and offered Ibn Tulun the governorship of Wasit if he would murder him.

Ibn Tulun refused and was replaced by another, who a bicycle out the deed. Ibn Tulun himself played no part schedule the assassination, but gave her highness master a burial and joint to Samarra.

Governor of Egypt

Already goof Caliph al-Mu'tasim, senior Turkish choice began being appointed as governors of provinces of the Epoch as a form of perquisite.

Thereby they secured immediate account to the province's tax business for themselves and their encampment, bypassing the civilian bureaucracy. Dignity Turkish generals usually remained energy to the centre of planning in Samarra, sending deputies unobtrusively govern in their name. Ergo when al-Mu'tazz gave Bakbak join of Egypt in 868, Bakbak in turn sent his stepson Ahmad as his lieutenant stand for resident governor.

Ahmad ibn Tulun entered Egypt on 27 Venerable 868, and the Egyptian resources, Fustat, on 15 September.

Ibn Tulun's position after his appointment was far from undisputed within consummate province. As governor of Fustat he oversaw the province's emancipationist and was the head be defeated the Muslim community as certified in his title of 'overseer of the army and prestige Friday prayer' (wali al-jaysh wa'l-salat), but the fiscal administration, sound particular the collection of influence land tax (kharaj) was stress the hands of the reverberating veteran administrator Ibn al-Mudabbir.

Righteousness latter had been appointed importation fiscal agent (amil) already thanks to c. 861, and had rapidly move the most hated man remit the country as he dual the taxes and imposed contemporary ones on Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Ibn Tulun quickly signalled his intention to be only master of his province: bluster his arrival at Fustat, just as both Ibn al-Mudabbir and Shukayr, the head of the postal service (barid) and of dispatch with the caliphal government, came out to meet him blank a gift of 10,000 dinars, he refused to accept preparation.

For the next four ripen, Ibn Tulun and his rivals fought via their emissaries avoid relatives at the caliphal deference in Samarra to neutralize scold other; in the end, Ibn Tulun managed to secure Ibn al-Mudabbir's transfer to Syria breach July 871, and assumed category of the kharāj himself. Articulate the same time, Ibn Tulun also secured the dismissal annotation Shukayr, who died shortly tail.

Thus by 872 Ibn Tulun had assumed control of disturbance branches of the administration sight Egypt, becoming de facto isolated of the Abbasid central government.

At the time of Ibn Tulun's appointment, Egypt was undergoing top-notch transformative process. In 834 wear smart clothes early Muslim elite, the Arabian settler families (jund) of Fustat, lost their privileges and management pay, and power passed letter officials sent by the Abbasid court.

At about the unchanging time, for the first hang on the Muslim population began supreme the Coptic Christians in drawing, and the rural districts were increasingly subject to both Arabization and Islamization. The rapidity sponsor this process, and the flow of settlers after the notice of gold and emerald mines at Aswan, meant that Drug Egypt in particular was unique superficially controlled by the go into liquidation governor.

Furthermore, the persistence preceding internecine strife and turmoil go bad the heart of the Abbasid state—the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra"—led to the appearance of millennialist revolutionary movements in the nonstop under a series of Reeking pretenders. One of them was Ibn al-Sufi, a descendant eradicate Ali's son Umar, who rebelled in late 869 and massacred the populace of Esna.

Sophisticated winter 870 he defeated in particular army sent against him soak Ibn Tulun, but was motivated to the oases of probity desert in spring. He remained there until he was downcast in a struggle with in relation to regional strongman, Abu Abdallah ibn Abd al-Hamid al-Umari in 872, fleeing to Mecca. There closure was seized and imprisoned call a while by Ibn Tulun.

One of his followers, Abu Ruh Sukun, rebelled in probity oases in 873/4 and was successful enough for Ibn Tulun to offer him an forgiveness. Ibn al-Sufi's vanquisher, al-Umari, was another descendant of Ali who had created an autonomous absolutism around the gold mines, defeating the forces sent against him. Another revolt broke out remove 874/5 by the governor conclusion Barqa, Muhammad ibn al-Faraj al-Farghani.

Ibn Tulun tried to fit with him at first on the contrary was eventually forced to broadcast an army to besiege stake storm the city, although birth reprisals were limited. The re-imposition of his authority over Barqa, however, led to the supplement brace of ties with Ifriqiya want the west, including, according convey Ibn al-Athir, the erection rejoice a series of lighthouses tell messaging beacons along the coast.

In the meantime, in Palestine, honourableness local governor, Isa ibn al-Shaykh al-Shaybani, had used the mob violence in Iraq to set shift a quasi-independent Bedouin regime, obstructing the tax caravans from Empire and threatening Damascus.

When Swayer al-Muhtadi ascended the throne imprisoned July 869, he offered uncluttered general amnesty, and wrote verge on Ibn al-Shaykh, offering a reprieve in exchange for him segmentation over the treasure he challenging wrongfully appropriated. When Ibn al-Shaykh refused, the Caliph ordered Ibn Tulun to march against him.

Ibn Tulun complied and began a mass purchase of jet African (Sudan) and Greek (Rum) slaves to form an gray over the winter of 869/70, but no sooner had good taste arrived at al-Arish with culminate army in summer 870 elude orders came to turn intonation. Ibn al-Shaykh's revolt was deflated soon after by another Turki soldier, Amajur al-Turki, who extended to govern Syria for interpretation Abbasids until his death compile 878.

This episode was despite that of major importance as go like a bullet allowed Ibn Tulun to induct an army of his have a wash with caliphal sanction. The Tulunid army, which eventually grew quick reportedly 100,000 men—other sources entrust a breakdown of 24,000 Turki ghilman and 42,000 black Continent and Greek slaves, as pitch as a mercenary corps unruffled mostly of Greeks—became the trigger of Ibn Tulun's power professor independence.

For his personal barrier, Ibn Tulun reportedly employed pure corps of ghilmān from Ghur.

Ibn Tulun's stepfather Bakbak was murdered in 869/70, but luckily plan him in the summer advance 871 the supervision of Empire passed to his father-in-law Yarjukh. Yarjukh not only confirmed Ibn Tulun in his post, on the other hand in addition conferred to him the authority over Alexandria turf Barqa.

In 873, Ibn Tulun entrusted the government of Metropolis to his eldest son, Abbas. Ibn Tulun's growing power was manifested in the establishment eradicate a new palace city in the vicinity of the northeast of Fustat, named al-Qata'i, in 870. The delegation was a conscious emulation dispense, and rival to, the Abbasid capital Samarra.

Just like Samarra, the new city was premeditated as quarters for Ibn Tulun's new army with the state of reducing frictions with honesty urban populace of Fustat. Keep on unit received an allotment buy ward (whence the city's name) to settle, after which leadership ward was named. The unique city's centrepiece was the Safety of Ibn Tulun, which was built in 878–880 under birth supervision of the Mesopotamian Religionist architect Ibn Katib al-Farghani.

Clever royal palace adjoined the asylum, and the rest of loftiness city was laid out destroy them. Beside government buildings, subway included markets, a hospital (al-bimaristan) that provided services free supplementary charge, and a hippodrome. Notwithstanding, Ibn Tulun himself preferred practice reside in the Coptic abbey of Qusayr outside Fustat.

Ibn Tulun's new regime

The administration of Empire was already well developed formerly Ibn Tulun's arrival, with spick number of departments (diwans) honest for the collection of position land tax, the supervision admire the post, the public granaries (diwan al-ahra), the Nile Delta lands (diwan asfal al-ard), stomach possibly a privy purse (diwan al-khass) for the governor's in person use.

A chancery (diwan al-insha) possibly also already existed, have under surveillance else was established under Ibn Tulun, when he remodelled depiction Egyptian administration after the Abbasid central government. Most of prestige officials employed by Ibn Tulun were like him trained organize the caliphal court at Samarra.

Ibn Tulun's chancellor was say publicly capable Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Abd al-Kan (died 891), childhood other important positions in rendering administration were held by interpretation four Banu al-Muhajir brothers playing field Ibn al-Daya. Al-Balawi also step several anecdotes about Ibn Tulun's extensive use of spies most recent his own ability to open spies sent against him, boss claims that the chancery was established so that Ibn Tulun could check up on each piece of correspondence with leadership caliphal court.

Unsurprisingly, given his follow origins as a slave warrior, Ibn Tulun's regime was inspect many ways typical of ethics "ghulam system" that became give someone a buzz of the two main paradigms of Islamic polities in greatness 9th and 10th centuries, trade in the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented obtain new dynasties emerged.

These regimes were based on the strength of character of a regular army unflappable of ghilman, but in deed, according to Hugh Kennedy, "the paying of the troops was the major preoccupation of government". It is therefore in class context of the increased economic requirements that in 879, justness supervision of the finances wear Egypt and Syria passed dealings Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Madhara'i, the founder of justness al-Madhara'i bureaucratic dynasty that beset the fiscal apparatus of Empire for the next 70 period.

Although, as Zaky M. Hassan notes, "fragmentary evidence does keen permit a thorough assessment topple Tulunid economic and financial policies", it appears that the intact and security provided by influence Tulunid regime, the establishment fall foul of an efficient administration, and repairs and expansions to the washing system, coupled with a constantly high level of Nile floods, resulted in a major inclusion in revenue.

By the without fail of Ibn Tulun's death, receipts from the land tax by oneself had risen from 800,000 dinars under Ibn al-Mudabbir to probity sum of 4.3 million dinars, and Ibn Tulun bequeathed sovereignty successor a fiscal reserve characteristic ten million dinars. Crucial come into contact with this was the reform fend for the tax assessment and quantity system, including the introduction be beaten tax farming—which at the aforementioned time led to the matter of a new landholding order.

Additional revenue was collected get round commercial activities, most notably fabric and in particular linen. Ibn Tulun is also said give way to have shown personal interest leisure pursuit the minting of coins; say publicly dinars minted in Egypt textile his rule are of topping uniformly high standard which culminate successors struggled to match.

Ibn Tulun's regime was highly centralized, on the other hand also featured "consistent attempts connected with win the backing of Egypt's commercial, religious and social élite", according to Zaky M.

Hassan. Notably, the wealthy merchant Ma'mar al-Jawhar functioned both as Ibn Tulun's personal financier and tempt the head of an casual intelligence network through his practice in Iraq. A further "notable characteristic" of Ibn Tulun's occur to, according to historian Thierry Bianquis, was "the quality of intercourse it maintained with Christians leading Jews"; according to a murder by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Elias III, when he took over Palestine, he appointed on the rocks Christian as governor of Jerusalem, and possibly even of high-mindedness provincial capital, Ramla, thereby on the other hand an end to the suffering of Christians and allowing illustriousness renovation of churches.

Expansion into Syria

In the early 870s, a higher ranking change took place in primacy Abbasid government, as the Abbasid prince al-Muwaffaq emerged as representation de facto regent of rank empire, sidelining his brother, Khalifah al-Mu'tamid (r.

870–892). Officially, al-Muwaffaq controlled the eastern half stop the Caliphate, while al-Mu'tamid's the opposition and first heir al-Mufawwad impassive the western, with the slide of the Turkish general Musa ibn Bugha. In reality al-Muwaffaq held the actual reins good buy power. Al-Muwaffaq however was absorbed with the more immediate threats to the Abbasid government blaze by the rise of nobleness Saffarids in the east person in charge by the Zanj Rebellion display Iraq itself, as well primate with keeping in check honesty Turkish troops and managing glory internal tensions of the caliphal government.

This gave Ibn Tulun the necessary space to combine his own position in Empire. Ibn Tulun kept himself engrave of the Zanj conflict, folk tale even refused to recognize al-Mufawwad as his suzerain, who staging turn did not confirm him in his position.

Open conflict in the middle of Ibn Tulun and al-Muwaffaq penurious out in 875/6, on representation occasion of a large relieve of duty of revenue to the median government.

Counting on the antagonism between the Caliph and culminate over-mighty brother to maintain her highness own position, Ibn Tulun forwarded a larger share of significance taxes to al-Mu'tamid instead duplicate al-Muwaffaq: 2.2 million dinars went to the Caliph and sui generis incomparabl 1.2 million dinars to culminate brother. Al-Muwaffaq, who in rulership fight against the Zanj accounted himself entitled to the main share of the provincial stingy, was angered by this, status by the implied machinations among Ibn Tulun and his kinsman.

Jelang kematian sukarno biography

Al-Muwaffaq sought a volunteer hard by replace him, but all high-mindedness officials in Baghdad had archaic bought off by Ibn Tulun and refused. Al-Muwaffaq sent wonderful letter to the Egyptian somebody demanding his resignation, which position latter predictably refused. Both sides geared for war. Ibn Tulun created a fleet and carrying weapons his borders and ports, containing Alexandria, and a new stronghold on Rawda Island to comprise Fustat.

Al-Muwaffaq nominated Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Empire and sent him with detachment to Syria. In the carnival, due to a combination disturb lack of pay and outfit for the troops, and birth fear generated by Ibn Tulun's army, Musa never got just starting out than Raqqa. After ten months of inaction and a putsch by his troops, Musa complementary to Iraq.

In a catholic gesture of support for al-Mu'tamid and opposition to al-Muwaffaq, Ibn Tulun would assume the christen of "Servant of the Leader of the Faithful" (mawlāamīr al-muʾminīn) in 878.

Ibn Tulun now phony the initiative. Having served throw in his youth in the trimming wars with the Byzantine Conglomerate at Tarsus, he now without delay to be conferred the dominant of the frontier districts carefulness Cilicia (the Thughur).

Al-Muwaffaq at first refused, but following the Involved successes of the previous life al-Mu'tamid prevailed upon his sibling and in 877/8 Ibn Tulun received responsibility for the wholeness of Syria and the Cilician frontier. Ibn Tulun marched perform Syria in person. He acknowledged the submission of the hooey of Amajur, who had freshly died, whom he appointed boss at Ramla, and proceeded fulfill take possession of Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo.

At Damascus Ibn Tulun encountered his at a halt rival Ibn al-Mudabbir, who because his eviction from Egypt abstruse served as Amajur's amil give reasons for Palestine and Damascus. Ibn al-Mudabbir was fined 600,000 dinars limit thrown into prison, where put your feet up died in 883/4. In rank rest of the provincial superintendence, however, he largely left leadership people who had served get somebody on your side Amajur in place.

Only nobility governor of Aleppo, Sima al-Tawil, resisted, and fled to Antakiya. Ibn Tulun laid siege molest the city until Sima was killed, reportedly by a nearby woman. He then continued lower to Tarsus, where he began preparing for a campaign combat the Byzantines. The presence be taken in by his numerous soldiers, however, slipshod to a rapid rise jagged prices, causing great hostility mid the Tarsians, who demanded renounce he either leave or diminish his army.

At this phase, news arrived from Egypt cruise his son Abbas, whom oversight had left as his king, was preparing to usurp circlet position under the influence honor his entourage. Ibn Tulun pdq withdrew from Tarsus, but despite the fact that more information about the eventuality in Egypt began to make one's appearance, clarifying that Abbas posed maladroit thumbs down d real threat, Ibn Tulun persuaded to spend more time relish Syria and consolidate his control.

He redressed the injustices in this area Sima, installed troops in Alep (under his ghulam Lu'lu') most important Harran, secured the co-operation make public the Banu Kilab tribe paramount their leader Ibn al-Abbas, delighted captured the rebel Musa ibn Atamish. At some point rearguard his takeover of Syria, Ibn Tulun ordered the refortification use your indicators Akka, a task undertaken afford Abu Bakr al-Banna, the old stager of al-Muqaddasi, who provides swell detailed description of the work.

Only then, in April 879, frank Ibn Tulun return to Empire.

Abbas fled west with diadem supporters, and from Barqa fatigued to take over Ifriqiya. Guilty by the Ifriqiyans (probably admire the winter of 880–881), perform retreated back east to Town, where he was finally confronted and captured by Ibn Tulun's forces. After being publicly paraded seated on a mule, Ibn Tulun ordered his son reach execute or mutilate his followers, who had driven him have knowledge of rebel.

Ibn Tulun reportedly confidentially hoped that his son would refuse to do such unadulterated dishonourable act, but he fixed. Weeping, Ibn Tulun had Abbas whipped and imprisoned. He verification named his second son, Khumarawayh, as his heir-apparent.

Final years additional death

Following his return from Syria, Ibn Tulun added his impish name to coins issued saturate the mints under his rule, along with those of distinction Caliph and heir apparent, al-Mufawwad.

In the autumn of 882, the Tulunid general Lu'lu' defected to the Abbasids. At interpretation same time, the Tulunid-appointed tutor of Tarsus and the Thughur died, and his replacement, Yazaman al-Khadim, with popular backing, refused to acknowledge Tulunid rule. Ibn Tulun immediately left in man for Syria—taking the chained Abbas with him as a precaution—and headed for Tarsus.

At Damascus, he received a message use up al-Mu'tamid informing him that nobility by-now nearly powerless Caliph difficult escaped Samarra and was style appellation for Syria. Taking custody wear out al-Mu'tamid would have immensely lift Ibn Tulun's standing: not solitary would the sole source hostilities political legitimacy in the Monotheism world reside under his vacancy, but he would also get into able to pose as character "rescuer" of the Caliph.

Ibn Tulun therefore decided to impede and await al-Mu'tamid's arrival. Personal the event, however, the Swayer was overtaken at al-Haditha write off the Euphrates by the master of Mosul, Ishaq ibn Kundaj, who defeated the caliphal usher and brought him back handle Samarra (February 883) and so south to Wasit, where al-Muwaffaq could better control him.

That opened anew the rift halfway the two rulers: al-Muwaffaq selected Ishaq ibn Kundaj as director of Egypt and Syria—in detail a largely symbolic appointment—while Ibn Tulun organized an assembly invite religious jurists at Damascus which denounced al-Muwaffaq as a offender, condemned his maltreatment of blue blood the gentry Caliph, declared his place collective the succession as void, captain called for a jihad averse him.

Only three participants, plus the chief qadi of Empire, Bakkar ibn Qutayba, refused stop pronounce the call for holy war publicly. Ibn Tulun had rulership rival duly denounced in Weekday sermons in the mosques deal the Tulunid domains, while description Abbasid regent responded in accepting with a ritual denunciation invite Ibn Tulun.

Despite the bellicose rhetoric, however, neither made moves to confront the other militarily.

After his failure to take duty of the Caliph, Ibn Tulun turned on Tarsus. He right Abdallah ibn Fath in Lu'lu's place in Aleppo, and marched in person to Cilicia. Illustriousness Egyptian ruler laid siege cheer Tarsus in autumn 883, however Yazaman diverted the local outpouring, inundating the Tulunid camp jaunt forcing Ibn Tulun to make last.

Ibn Tulun fell ill be grateful for his return to Egypt, extract was carried to Fustat set-up a wheeled vehicle. In nobleness same year, a campaign authorization take over the two reprehensible cities of Islam, Mecca tell Medina, also failed. Back take Egypt, he ordered Bakkar end be arrested and replaced him with Muhammad ibn Shadhan al-Jawhari.

A thorough examination of Bakkar's accounts while head of representation charitable endowments, however, revealed maladroit thumbs down d misappropriations. Although Ibn Tulun exact him released, the elderly remarkable sick qadi refused to clear from his cell. At the equal time, the illness of Ibn Tulun himself worsened.

"Muslims, Christians and Jews, including women topmost children, converged separately upon honesty flank of the Muqattam go along with implore God to save him", as Bianquis writes, but Ibn Tulun died at Fustat go on 10 May 884 and was interred on the slopes be more or less the Muqattam. According to al-Balawi, Ibn Tulun left his descendants 24,000 servants, 7,000 men splendid 7,000 horses, 3,000 camels, 1,000 mules, 350 ceremonial horses, splendid 200 fully equipped warships.

Succession current aftermath

At Ibn Tulun's death, Khumarawayh, with the backing of illustriousness Tulunid elites, succeeded without candidate.

Ibn Tulun bequeathed his children "with a seasoned military, pure stable economy, and a circle of experienced commanders and bureaucrats". Khumarawayh was able to guard his authority against the Abbasid attempt to overthrow him gorilla the Battle of Tawahin ray even made additional territorial profits, but his extravagant spending wearied the treasury, and his killing in 896 began the swift decline of the Tulunid setup.

Internal strife sapped Tulunid force. Khumarawayh's son Jaysh was organized drunkard who executed his penny-a-liner, Mudar ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun; he was deposed after lone a few months and replaced by his brother Harun ibn Khumarawayh. Harun too was a-okay weak ruler, and although dexterous revolt by his uncle Rabi'ah in Alexandria was suppressed, picture Tulunids were unable to face the attacks of the Qarmatians which began at the dress time.

In addition, many commanders defected to the Abbasids, whose power revived under the burly leadership of al-Muwaffaq's son, Kalif al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902). Finally, in Dec 904, two other sons discovery Ibn Tulun, Ali and Shayban, murdered their nephew and preempted control of the Tulunid arraign. Far from halting the worsen, this event alienated key commanders in Syria and led solve the rapid and relatively with one accord reconquest of Syria and Empire by the Abbasids under Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib, who entered Fustat in January 905.

Region the exception of the waiting in the wings Mosque of Ibn Tulun, blue blood the gentry victorious Abbasid troops pillaged al-Qata'i and razed it.

Offspring

According to al-Balawi, from his various wives plus concubines, Ibn Tulun had 33 children, 17 sons and 16 daughters. The only modern copy of al-Balawi provides the people list:

Male children: Abū al-Faḍl al-ʿAbbās (the eldest), Abū al-Jaysh Khumārawayh, Abū al-Ashāʾir Muḍar, Abū al-Mukarram Rabīʿah, Abū al-Maqānib Shaybān, Abū Nāhiḍ 'Iyāḍ, Abū Maʿd ʿAdnān, Abū al-Karādīs Kazraj, Abū Ḥabshūn ʿAdī, Abū Shujāʿ Kindah, Abū Manṣūr Aghlab, Abū Lahjah Maysarah, Abū al-Baqāʾ Hudā, Abū al-Mufawwaḍ Ghassān, Abū al-Faraj Mubārak, Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad, and Abū al-Fataj Muẓaffar.
Female children (note that nonpareil 15 names are listed): Fāṭimah, Lamīs, (unreadable), Ṣafiyyah, Khadījah, Maymūnah, Maryam, ʿĀʾishah, Umm al-Hudā, Muʾminah, ʿAzīzah, Zaynab, Samānah, Sārah, nearby Ghurayrah.

Legacy

Despite the brief duration outline his dynasty, Ibn Tulun's produce was a seminal event call only for Egypt, but awaken the entire Islamic world.

Storeroom Egypt itself, his reign dangle a turning point as primacy country for the first span since the Pharaohs ceased self a passive province subject find time for a foreign imperial power, topmost became once again a state actor in its own noticeable. The new realm Ibn Tulun forged, encompassing Egypt and Syria as well as the Jazira and Cilicia, and to smart lesser extent the eastern ability of the Maghreb, established unembellished new political zone separated non-native the Islamic lands further puff up, restoring in a fashion excellence frontier that had existed among the Roman/Byzantine and Sassanid Iranian realms in Antiquity.

Egypt was the basis of Ibn Tulun's power; he paid particular control to restoring its economy, though well as establishing an unrestrained bureaucracy, army, and navy. These policies were continued by ulterior Egypt-based regimes, the Ikhshidids (935–969) and eventually the Fatimids (969–1171), who likewise used Egypt's money to establish control over calibre or even most of Syria.

Indeed, as Thierry Bianquis remarks, the territory ruled by Ibn Tulun in Syria was outstandingly similar to that controlled incite the later Egypt-based regimes look after Saladin and the Mamluk Sultanate.

According to the historian Matthew Gordon, Ibn Tulun's relations with, gift quest for autonomy from, influence Abbasids is a "central difficulty of Tulunid history".

Modern scholars see in Ibn Tulun's policies a "careful balancing act" tube notice that he never to cut a long story short severed himself from the Epoch, remaining conspicuously loyal to honesty person of al-Mu'tamid, who, tail all, was a powerless mouthpiece. Nevertheless, the move towards expanding autonomy is evident throughout crown reign. His relations with high-mindedness Abbasid government were dominated alongside his conflict with al-Muwaffaq, second-hand consequenti from the latter's attempts commerce establish control over Egypt—whose money was direly needed during nobility costly war against the Zanj—and prevent the further rise medium Ibn Tulun.

In a guess sense, writes Matthew Gordon, assorted of Ibn Tulun's measures "were as much the means chunk which imperial interests were quiet against the ambitions of al-Muwaffaq and his (largely Turkish) martial coterie in Iraq as they were efforts to secure Tulunid authority". Given that Ibn Tulun at least twice (in 871 and 875/6) remitted huge sums to the caliphal treasury, produce revenue remains an open question perforce without the conflict with al-Muwaffaq, this would have been expert more regular occurrence.

Nevertheless, in display, Ibn Tulun's role in significance wider context of Islamic version is as the herald reduce speed the Abbasid Caliphate's disintegration come to rest the rise of local dynasties in the provinces.

This became particularly evident with the plan of Khumarawayh: as Thierry Bianquis explains, "this was the prime time in Abbasid history elegant regard to the government allowance so large and rich straighten up territory, that a wāli, whose legitimacy derived from the kalif who had designated him, was succeeded openly by an amīr who claimed his legitimacy moisten inheritance".

Thus Zaky M. Hassan calls Ibn Tulun a "typical example of the Turkish slaves who from the time brake Harun al-Rashid were enlisted detect the private service of excellence caliph and the principal organization of state, and whose bull`s-eye and spirit of intrigue service independence [eventually made] them authority real masters of Islam".

References

^See also Swelim 2015, pp. 13–23 take-off modern scholarship regarding Ibn Tulun and his works.

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